Introduction
Everyone has probably heard a story or two about a local beggar sitting on the pavement all day looking sad and collecting money for shelter, only to be picked up in a back alley at night by nothing less than an Audi of Mercedes. Whether these stories are true or not, it makes us uncomfortable. Someone begging for money should be poor, and not involved with the commercial world by which those expensive cars are made possible. It’s the same double feeling we get when a manager of a charity organisation makes hundreds of thousands a year. Someone associated with poverty and caring, and with turning away from the rest of the commercial, egocentric society, can’t be a part of that same greedy mass. Still, historiography suggests, this was the case with the mendicant orders in the Mediterranean of the Middle Ages.
The thirteenth century was a tumultuous century, in which many challenges were faced. There were wars, crusades, but most importantly: a huge growth in commercialization. One consistent force in the entire continent of Europe was always there though: the church. In this period the church was, besides a heavenly power, also an earthly power. Much involved in politics in indirect and direct ways, the church was a force to be reckoned with. Still there were people who were critical about the combination of the power of the church and the upcoming trade and economic prosperity. Certain people were appalled by the huge cathedrals in which many riches were collected. This couldn’t be what God had wanted. Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzman were such people, wanting to start their own monastic orders based on a sober lifestyle in which the friars would be dependent on gifts.
But as these mendicant orders grew and spread, something remarkable shows; while the orders were all about the poor and a life of nothing but preaching and missionary work, their spread seemed to go hand in hand with urbanization, which is a result of nothing less but the commercial life the friars dreaded that much. In some ways this can be explained; as an order which was totally dependent on gifts, it would be nothing but reasonable to settle near a city. The friars had to live of something, after all. But it doesn’t explain the, in the historiography much mentioned, riches these orders seemed to collect through merchants, or their patronage towards them. The book Mendicants and merchants in the medieval Mediterranean edited by Taryn Chubb shows this side of the story, with Chubb herself and Emily Kelley stating that the tight relationships of the Dominican order with the merchants benefited the Dominicans in many areas. Their patronage towards the merchants would legitimize trade and by this grant the merchants a certain absolution. The church had seen trading as an improper occupation, with people making money of simply begetting and selling merchandise, making profit for none but themselves. The Dominicans gained economic profits, especially through merchants' gifts for chapels. Could it be true that these mendicants turned towards the very greediness they had fled from? Why exactly did this order, protesting against extravagance, become so friendly and involved with traders and trade networks?
But as these mendicant orders grew and spread, something remarkable shows; while the orders were all about the poor and a life of nothing but preaching and missionary work, their spread seemed to go hand in hand with urbanization, which is a result of nothing less but the commercial life the friars dreaded that much. In some ways this can be explained; as an order which was totally dependent on gifts, it would be nothing but reasonable to settle near a city. The friars had to live of something, after all. But it doesn’t explain the, in the historiography much mentioned, riches these orders seemed to collect through merchants, or their patronage towards them. The book Mendicants and merchants in the medieval Mediterranean edited by Taryn Chubb shows this side of the story, with Chubb herself and Emily Kelley stating that the tight relationships of the Dominican order with the merchants benefited the Dominicans in many areas. Their patronage towards the merchants would legitimize trade and by this grant the merchants a certain absolution. The church had seen trading as an improper occupation, with people making money of simply begetting and selling merchandise, making profit for none but themselves. The Dominicans gained economic profits, especially through merchants' gifts for chapels. Could it be true that these mendicants turned towards the very greediness they had fled from? Why exactly did this order, protesting against extravagance, become so friendly and involved with traders and trade networks?
In the earlier mentioned work by Taryn Chubb, but also in other literature, the focus strongly lies on the benefits gained by merchants in cooperating with the mendicant orders. This research will look at the opposite: the advantages for the mendicants. While the economic aspect is well argued in various literature, other motives will be researched such as the missionary aspect so tightly woven into their principles. It will look into the different ways the mendicant orders were involved in the Mediterranean world, the role of trade and trade networks, and at last the mutual interests. In this way the network of the mendicant order and the merchants networks will be compared to see in which ways these networks met and profited. Investigating this problem with the use of network theory, and tracing the network of missionary activity, helps us to understand how mendicants orders could grow so fast, whether the orders were more economically focused than their principles would suggest, or if the ties with the merchants were a necessary networking tool by which their missionary goal could be achieved.
Mendicant involvement in the Mediterranean world
Mendicant orders were active mainly in two distinctive ways: by starting up new houses for friars and by missionary activity. Both were made possible by preaching. It was the main adjective of the preachers to bring the word of God to the lay people and to 'heathens' across the sea. Norman Thomas speaks of 'a passion to convert Muslims through missions'. Through these missions and sometimes with help from the Pope himself, mendicants could be found in courts as well, functioning as cultural brokers between the Eastern and Western world, so Jenny Oesterle states. Apart from these involvements, mendicants became more and more connected to society because of the education they often gave.
When I progress further in my research, my hope is to construct a geographical depiction of the missionary activity around the Mediterranean from primary and secondary sources concerning missions. This will show the network of the mendicants in the Mediterranean. Several different sources will be used: in The Portable Medieval Reader by James Ross and Mary McLaughlin are many sources written by contemporary friars on their missionary travels. For example 'A mission to the Great Khan' by William of Rubruck, written between 1253-1254, and also some sources about 'The Labours of a Friar in Cathay'. Other missions to the Mongol lands will be looked at through The Mongol Mission, an edition of letters from Franciscan missionaries in Mongolia and China in the 13th and 14th centuries.
This network will be compared to trade routes and contemporary discoveries and interests for merchants. This comparison will be made in the third chapter, in which the activities and interests of the mendicants and merchants will be compared to see whether the overlap in networks was a coincidence, an economic profit plan or a network forged for (or arisen from) mutual interests and missionary work.
When I progress further in my research, my hope is to construct a geographical depiction of the missionary activity around the Mediterranean from primary and secondary sources concerning missions. This will show the network of the mendicants in the Mediterranean. Several different sources will be used: in The Portable Medieval Reader by James Ross and Mary McLaughlin are many sources written by contemporary friars on their missionary travels. For example 'A mission to the Great Khan' by William of Rubruck, written between 1253-1254, and also some sources about 'The Labours of a Friar in Cathay'. Other missions to the Mongol lands will be looked at through The Mongol Mission, an edition of letters from Franciscan missionaries in Mongolia and China in the 13th and 14th centuries.
This network will be compared to trade routes and contemporary discoveries and interests for merchants. This comparison will be made in the third chapter, in which the activities and interests of the mendicants and merchants will be compared to see whether the overlap in networks was a coincidence, an economic profit plan or a network forged for (or arisen from) mutual interests and missionary work.
How merchant and mendicant networks connected
The two maps shown above (to see the source, hover your mouse over them) show two different things. The left map is a map concerning the amount of Franciscan and Dominican orders in Europe in the 13th century. In the map you can clearly see a preference of the orders to settle on the coasts of the Mediterranean sea. Of course other areas in Europa are settled as well, but the density of the network in Italy is striking. The right map shows the most popular trade routes and centers in Europe in the 13th century. When comparing the left map to the right one, a connection between trade centers, trade routes and the spread of the mendicant orders is obvious, especially in the Mediterranean area. But in Northern Europe the connection can be seen as well, if for example you look at the red dots which represent the Hanze routes and the orders. Trade routes and especially naval trade seemed to play a big role in the spread of the mendicant orders. This comparison shows at least an overlap in geographical network.
Apart from the situational overlap, other networks and interests of the mendicants and merchants seem to merge as well. Robin Vose in his article supports the earlier mentioned statement that the friars would profit from the networks mainly through the gifts and money the merchants supplied, and the merchants would get spiritual support. He adds that merchants often used contact with mendicants to forge connections to other merchants, and that they would receive education. The networks also connected when it concerned the conversion of Muslim lands through naval routes but also through courts, in which merchants too were closely involved. The discovery of new lands, fueled by tradesmen, was also an important factor which brought the networks closer, as new heathen lands were new challenges for the friars. When the research has progressed and the network of the friars through mission, courts and settlement has been constructed, the connection between the merchant and mendicant networks will be more clear.
Apart from the situational overlap, other networks and interests of the mendicants and merchants seem to merge as well. Robin Vose in his article supports the earlier mentioned statement that the friars would profit from the networks mainly through the gifts and money the merchants supplied, and the merchants would get spiritual support. He adds that merchants often used contact with mendicants to forge connections to other merchants, and that they would receive education. The networks also connected when it concerned the conversion of Muslim lands through naval routes but also through courts, in which merchants too were closely involved. The discovery of new lands, fueled by tradesmen, was also an important factor which brought the networks closer, as new heathen lands were new challenges for the friars. When the research has progressed and the network of the friars through mission, courts and settlement has been constructed, the connection between the merchant and mendicant networks will be more clear.
Conclusion
Though much of the research has yet to be conducted, the expected conclusion of this essay will be that even though the economic profit for the orders in being involved with merchants and their networks will have been a nice bonus, this wasn't the main reason the networks overlapped. I expect to see a great overlap in the missionary activity and the merchants trade networks in various fields, which shows where connections in the networks originated and what kind of mutual interests and motives there would have been. Also I expect to see a larger intensity of missionary work where the connection to merchants is stronger. The overlap of the networks would not be for and through economic advantages alone, but because it would be more convenient to have easy access to travel routes for the missionary work the friars were pledged to.
W.J. Kolkert
Further reading and bibliography
- Chubb, Taryn E. L. Mendicants and Merchants in the Medieval Mediterranean. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
A bundle of various articles concerning the (mainly economic) perspectives on the interaction between mendicants and merchants. - Höh, Marc von der, Nikolas Jaspert, Jenny R. Oesterle, ed. Cultural Brokers at Mediterranean Courts in the Middle Ages. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2013.
A bundle of articles using (social) network theory to understand the Mediterranean courts. It shows how missionaries and mendicants but also institutions fit in the social networks of the courts of the Middle Ages. - Lawrence, C. H. Friars : The Impact of the Mendicant Orders on Medieval Society. I.B. Tauris, 2013.
- Prudlo, Donald. The Origin, Development, and Refinement of Medieval Religious Mendicancies. Brill's Companions to the Christian Tradition, V. 24. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
- Thomas, Norman E. Classic texts in Mission & World Christianity. New York: Orbis Books Maryknoll, 1995.
A source book with introductions, containing several sources about missions. The mentioned quote from Norman Thomas came from the text about Raymond Lull, in 'interfaith dialogue', page 25. - Trivellato, Francesca, Leor Halevi, and Antunes Cátia, eds. Religion and Trade: Cross-Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000-1900. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Vose, Robin. ‘Friars on the Edge: Socio-Economic Networking and the Dominicans of Conquered Mallorca’ in Taryn E.L. Chubb. Mendicants and Merchants in the Medieval Mediterranean. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
A useful article containing several case studies which show personal networks and connections, and different ties between mendicants and merchants.
The images used as the header, footer and background of this page have been composed and edited by the writer, using different images found through google images.
Stained glass bible: 'Saint John the Baptist Catholic Church' on Wikimedia Commons by Nheyob.
Stained glass ship: 'Mayflower stained Glass' on Marketplace by Haeuser Heil Studios. www.custommade.com.
Stained glass border: 'Artistic stained Glass' on Sun City Arizona by Recreation Center of Sun City. www.suncityaz.org.
Parchment texture: 'Old Parchment' on Public Domain Pictures by CCO Public Domain. www.publicdomainpictures.net.
Painting 'The meeting of St. Francis and St. Dominic' by Fra Angelico, 1429. Can be seen in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Found on www.wikiart.org.