Introduction
It is common knowledge that during the Italian renaissance(1300-1600) the work of the ancients were rediscovered and the arts flourished as a result. The work of artists such as Raphael, Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Bernini have become central to the public image of this period in history. The aspect of the Italian renaissance that has been focused on less is that culture flourished in a politically fragmented and volatile landscape. Crucial to the understanding of the impressive cultural resurgence of the period were those that provided security for artists to make a living; the rulers of principalities and their commanders, courtiers and diplomats. The following is an article that discusses Baldassarre Castiglione(1478-1529) a minor nobleman from a family of condottieri origin, a class of former mercenaries who successfully bridged the divide between his military origins and artistic aspirations during his lifetime. Born in relative obscurity he died as a man who's fame stretched far beyond Italy, well known for being the perfect courtier as a battle tested commander, a skilled diplomat and a renowned writer.
The life of Castiglione has not been the topic of major studies ever since the 1927 publication by Julia Mary Cartwright, whereas a great many publications have discussed the long-lasting cultural effects of his literary work. An interesting approach to his life can now taken by making use of the body of literature concerning diplomats and their activities. Isabella Lazzarini states that diplomacy functioned as a flexible system of power aimed at limiting violence among the Italian principalities. Furthermore it was in Italy that the cornerstone of modern diplomatic practice, permanent residential ambassadors, was first used to great effect. Acting as a diplomat and a ambassador did not necessarily have to act according to the wishes of his homeland, the private affairs of an ambassador had priority and could consequently lead to the fragmentation of political power in his homeland. Alison Cole describes Mantuan diplomacy as a delicate balancing act whose diplomats navigated between the territorial claims of Venice and Milan, the influence of Gonzaga contacts in Germany and the overwhelming primacy of the Papal States in settling Italian disputes. The relatively long survival of the small principality of Gonzaga Mantua(1328-1708) can thus be credited to the ability of the Gonzaga dynasty to wed favorably and to the skill of the diplomats they employed. It was unheard of that the ruling dynasty of a somewhat trivial Italian principality was able to marry into primary branch of the Imperial Habsburg dynasty not once, but on two separate occasions. The most renowned diplomat for Mantua was Baldassarre Castiglione, who was resident ambassador to the Papal States. It is truly remarkable that Castiglione was able to make a name for himself despite his lowly condottieri origins and the diplomatically unstable waters he was forced to navigate.
The life of Castiglione has not been the topic of major studies ever since the 1927 publication by Julia Mary Cartwright, whereas a great many publications have discussed the long-lasting cultural effects of his literary work. An interesting approach to his life can now taken by making use of the body of literature concerning diplomats and their activities. Isabella Lazzarini states that diplomacy functioned as a flexible system of power aimed at limiting violence among the Italian principalities. Furthermore it was in Italy that the cornerstone of modern diplomatic practice, permanent residential ambassadors, was first used to great effect. Acting as a diplomat and a ambassador did not necessarily have to act according to the wishes of his homeland, the private affairs of an ambassador had priority and could consequently lead to the fragmentation of political power in his homeland. Alison Cole describes Mantuan diplomacy as a delicate balancing act whose diplomats navigated between the territorial claims of Venice and Milan, the influence of Gonzaga contacts in Germany and the overwhelming primacy of the Papal States in settling Italian disputes. The relatively long survival of the small principality of Gonzaga Mantua(1328-1708) can thus be credited to the ability of the Gonzaga dynasty to wed favorably and to the skill of the diplomats they employed. It was unheard of that the ruling dynasty of a somewhat trivial Italian principality was able to marry into primary branch of the Imperial Habsburg dynasty not once, but on two separate occasions. The most renowned diplomat for Mantua was Baldassarre Castiglione, who was resident ambassador to the Papal States. It is truly remarkable that Castiglione was able to make a name for himself despite his lowly condottieri origins and the diplomatically unstable waters he was forced to navigate.
Method
Social Network Analysis allows us to understand the complex networks of individuals, companies and cities in a different and exciting way. It uses a terminology of nodes, ties, hubs, directions and flows. Historians, though limited by the source materials left to them, can use the overview of nodes and ties to test certain assertions that have been made in the past about the way information, goods and people travel through space. Central to my study are the ties that make up the connections between individuals, how they are created, maintained and used to further the goals these individuals set out to accomplish. Despite his schooling, the origins of Castiglione made him the lesser partner in most of his important courtly relationships, yet he managed to stand out and exceed in a crowd of his peers. Whilst the traditional method of ascribing certain traits has been used to much extend in the past, it clearly lacks depth as a method of explanation. It is the use of social network theory that can provide an alternative explanation and allow us to understand what made Castiglione into a famous courtier by studying the way he build the social network that was central to his success.
Primary Sources
The Book of the Courtier is a literary work from Castiglione's pen that contains his imaginary conversations between different courtiers that take place during four evenings, ranging from topics such as combat, happiness, love, loyalty, the arts and the court. The objective of publishing The Book of the Courtier in 1528 was to honour the remembrance of his friends at the court of Urbino who had since then past away. Having started writing during the period he served Francesco Maria della Rovere, the work has been subjected to decades of refining and rewriting. Ultimately it was his potential public that pressed him to finally publish his personal masterpiece. After giving out segments to proofread to Vittoria Colonna, Castiglione found out that publishers in Naples had since obtained his work and were threatening to print it without his further corrections. The public Castiglione intended for his The Book of the Courtier was the educated aristocracy in Italy. His work reflected what he deemed to be the highest moral values to which a courtier should aspire, his intent was to bring back the spirit of his 'golden years' at the court of Urbino. The eventual spread of the work was far wider than Castiglione had intended and after his death he became a renowned writer especially outside of Italy, shaping much of the influence of the renaissance on the arts in Elizabethan England.
The other primary source used in the research is the translated correspondence that is included in Julia Cartwright's publication The Perfect Courtier. Castiglione's correspondence ranges from love letters to his wive Ippolita to scolding complaints addressed to manufacturers that his armour was not ready in time for battle. The great many excerpts allow the reader to study the way Castiglione acts in relation to others. Combined these two sources enable us to check whether he followed the advice he gives in The Book of The Courtier himself and to understand why Castiglione was such a successful man.
The other primary source used in the research is the translated correspondence that is included in Julia Cartwright's publication The Perfect Courtier. Castiglione's correspondence ranges from love letters to his wive Ippolita to scolding complaints addressed to manufacturers that his armour was not ready in time for battle. The great many excerpts allow the reader to study the way Castiglione acts in relation to others. Combined these two sources enable us to check whether he followed the advice he gives in The Book of The Courtier himself and to understand why Castiglione was such a successful man.
Preliminary Results
A reading of The Book of The Courtier reveals that the virtues a courtly gentleman needs to aspire to include: decorum, discretion, nonchalance and gracefulness. It centres around the various outward forms of polite behaviour that are exhibited by the book's characters, creating an air of insincerity. All actions are premeditated to gain the most personal renown and fame, success in battle for instance must take place within sight of superiors for it to be of any worth to the courtier. Combining appalling selfishness and insincere politeness with outright snobbery and an unhealthy fixation on outward display, the perfect courtier is an affront to our modern sensibilities. The ties created and maintained by the book's characters are superficial by design and display relationships that lead nowhere.
What is striking is that in his personal correspondence, Castiglione seems to be a man who is drastically different from the portrait he paints of the perfect courtier creating ties that last for decades. The famed personal correspondence between Castiglione and Raphael shows that the latter relied on Baldassarre's continued advice from picking the models he painted to approving the his designs for Rome's Saint Peter Cathedral before they were sent to the Pope. His close friendship with the master-painter made Castiglione the focus a number of requests after his return to Mantua, enhancing his prestige greatly.
When the fragile position of the Duke of Urbino Francesco Maria della Rovere was under threat from the Medici's he sent his most trusted advisor, Baldassarre Castiglione to address king Francis I personally to plea for his help in maintaining the dukedom. Despite his eloquent defense of the Duke and Francis' admiration for Castiglione, his political mission failed as the Medici Pope wouldn't budge. The opportunity arose for Castiglione to show Francis his book in progress, which resulted in a flurry of requests begging Castiglione to finish the work and send a copy arriving in the subsequent years. Sending pieces of his material accompanied with normal correspondence created a direct tie with one of the most powerful monarchs of Europe, allowing Castiglione to maintain contact with Francis I whilst serving under the Pope at the court of Charles V.
What is striking is that in his personal correspondence, Castiglione seems to be a man who is drastically different from the portrait he paints of the perfect courtier creating ties that last for decades. The famed personal correspondence between Castiglione and Raphael shows that the latter relied on Baldassarre's continued advice from picking the models he painted to approving the his designs for Rome's Saint Peter Cathedral before they were sent to the Pope. His close friendship with the master-painter made Castiglione the focus a number of requests after his return to Mantua, enhancing his prestige greatly.
When the fragile position of the Duke of Urbino Francesco Maria della Rovere was under threat from the Medici's he sent his most trusted advisor, Baldassarre Castiglione to address king Francis I personally to plea for his help in maintaining the dukedom. Despite his eloquent defense of the Duke and Francis' admiration for Castiglione, his political mission failed as the Medici Pope wouldn't budge. The opportunity arose for Castiglione to show Francis his book in progress, which resulted in a flurry of requests begging Castiglione to finish the work and send a copy arriving in the subsequent years. Sending pieces of his material accompanied with normal correspondence created a direct tie with one of the most powerful monarchs of Europe, allowing Castiglione to maintain contact with Francis I whilst serving under the Pope at the court of Charles V.
Preliminary Conclusion
To conclude it can be said that Baldassarre Castiglione did not necessarily follow his own advice, his interests did not include outward appearance and superficial association. The ideals of loyalty and discretion that are discussed did apply though and he was sincerely dedicated himself to helping his friends whenever possible. In a way he used his slowly progressing magnus opus to maintain ties and keep people interested, including the king of France and famed scholars in Italy, during his absence by sending excerpts to proof-read. Indulging the literary tastes of the elite and asking them for advice turned out to be an excellent way of maintaining contact and increasing his fame.
By W.J.A.
By W.J.A.
Further Reading
Cole, Alison. Italian Renaissance Courts : Art, Pleasure and Power. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2016.
Cox, Virginia. The Renaissance Dialogue : Literary Dialogue in Its Social and Political Contexts, Castiglione to Galileo. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture, 2. Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Lazzarini, Isabella. Communication and Conflict : Italian Diplomacy in the Early Renaissance, 1350-1520. Oxford Studies in Medieval European History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Gaylard, Susan. Hollow Men : Writing, Objects, and Public Image in Renaissance Italy. Bronx: Fordham University Press, 2013.
Hanning, Robert W, ed. Castiglione : The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. New Haven, Conn, 1983.
Cartwright, Julia Mary. The Perfect Courtier, Baldassare Castiglione : His Life and Letters, 1478-1529. London: John Murray, 1927.
Woodhouse, J.R. Baldesar Castiglione : A Reassessment of the Courtier. Writers of Italy, 7. Edinburgh, 1978.
Rebecchini, Guido. “The Book Collection and Other Possessions of Baldassarre Castiglione.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 61 (1998): 17–52.
Burke, Peter. The Fortunes of the Courtier : The European Reception of Castiglione's Cortegiano. Cambridge: Polity, 1995.
Gundersheimer, Werner L, and Renaissance Society of America. The Italian Renaissance. Renaissance Society of America Reprint Texts, 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press in association with the Renaissance Society of America, 1993.
Albury, William Randall. Castiglione's Allegory : Veiled Policy in the Book of the Courtier (1528). Farnham: Ashgate, 2014.
Concannon, Cavan W, and Lindsey A Mazurek, eds. Across the Corrupting Sea : Post-Braudelian Approaches to the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2016.
Castiglione, Baldesar. The Book of The Courtier. Edited by George Bull. London: Penguin Books, 2003.
Cox, Virginia. The Renaissance Dialogue : Literary Dialogue in Its Social and Political Contexts, Castiglione to Galileo. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture, 2. Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Lazzarini, Isabella. Communication and Conflict : Italian Diplomacy in the Early Renaissance, 1350-1520. Oxford Studies in Medieval European History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Gaylard, Susan. Hollow Men : Writing, Objects, and Public Image in Renaissance Italy. Bronx: Fordham University Press, 2013.
Hanning, Robert W, ed. Castiglione : The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. New Haven, Conn, 1983.
Cartwright, Julia Mary. The Perfect Courtier, Baldassare Castiglione : His Life and Letters, 1478-1529. London: John Murray, 1927.
Woodhouse, J.R. Baldesar Castiglione : A Reassessment of the Courtier. Writers of Italy, 7. Edinburgh, 1978.
Rebecchini, Guido. “The Book Collection and Other Possessions of Baldassarre Castiglione.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 61 (1998): 17–52.
Burke, Peter. The Fortunes of the Courtier : The European Reception of Castiglione's Cortegiano. Cambridge: Polity, 1995.
Gundersheimer, Werner L, and Renaissance Society of America. The Italian Renaissance. Renaissance Society of America Reprint Texts, 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press in association with the Renaissance Society of America, 1993.
Albury, William Randall. Castiglione's Allegory : Veiled Policy in the Book of the Courtier (1528). Farnham: Ashgate, 2014.
Concannon, Cavan W, and Lindsey A Mazurek, eds. Across the Corrupting Sea : Post-Braudelian Approaches to the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2016.
Castiglione, Baldesar. The Book of The Courtier. Edited by George Bull. London: Penguin Books, 2003.
Images Used
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael 1514-1515, property of Musee du Louvre, Paris.
Photo of the Gate of Casatico, home of Baldassare Castiglione, property of Wikimedia images.
Photo of the Family sigil of Castiglione, property of Wikimedia images.
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Titian 1529, property of National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin.
Photo of the Gate of Casatico, home of Baldassare Castiglione, property of Wikimedia images.
Photo of the Family sigil of Castiglione, property of Wikimedia images.
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Titian 1529, property of National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin.