This webpage will deal with Paul and several communities associated with him. Several letters written by him and key figures who play a role besides Paul within the Mediterranean of the 1st century AD will be examined here. Furthermore, the characteristics of Christians given in these letters will be dealt with. In this way I want to paint as clear a picture as possible of early Christian communities; how they looked like and how they interacted.
Paul, the frontman of the Christian community?
introduction
Paul was, as many people know, a pioneer of Christianity. At first a persecutor of Christianity, he changed his mind through an epiphany and instead became an important proponent of Christendom. In three missions he founded communities in modern Turkey, Greece, Macedonia and the Balkan. Through time he garnered a large reputation within the Christian tradition. Especially people like Augustine, a well-known church father from the 2nd half of the 4th century and early 5th century, and John Calvin, a theologian from the protestant Christian movement are heavily influenced by the works of Paul. Up until today, the influence of these three people is noticeable.
This prominence of Paul raises the following questions: How did the early Christian communities in the 1st century AD develop and was Paul really the only pivot of early Christianity or were others involved as well? To answer these questions, it is useful to examine the Christian communities in two cities from a network perspective. The communities in Rome and Corinth will be considered here. People like Fik Meijer and Stanley Stowers have already covered the position of these communities to some extent, even though a consensus is hard to attain. It is good to look at the networks they were part of: Who were the people communicating (called agents) between different communities or individuals (called actors) within the network and what were characteristics of this network? In this way you can get a better picture of what was going on at that time and what factors and people were important. Unfortunately, we do not have many sources available about these early communities. The letter to Rome, written in 55/56 AD from Corinth, and the letters written around 55/54 AD by Paul to Corinth have to suffice. There has already been a lot of discussion about the theological content of these letters. Here, on the other hand, we will mainly look at other features and functions that these letters had relevant for a network perspective. This is important, because in this way we will get to know the active people besides Paul and the nature of the network. Although Paul's main argument and exhortations occupy much space in his letters, there are other things of importance in the background. The letter to the Romans is a good example of this.
This prominence of Paul raises the following questions: How did the early Christian communities in the 1st century AD develop and was Paul really the only pivot of early Christianity or were others involved as well? To answer these questions, it is useful to examine the Christian communities in two cities from a network perspective. The communities in Rome and Corinth will be considered here. People like Fik Meijer and Stanley Stowers have already covered the position of these communities to some extent, even though a consensus is hard to attain. It is good to look at the networks they were part of: Who were the people communicating (called agents) between different communities or individuals (called actors) within the network and what were characteristics of this network? In this way you can get a better picture of what was going on at that time and what factors and people were important. Unfortunately, we do not have many sources available about these early communities. The letter to Rome, written in 55/56 AD from Corinth, and the letters written around 55/54 AD by Paul to Corinth have to suffice. There has already been a lot of discussion about the theological content of these letters. Here, on the other hand, we will mainly look at other features and functions that these letters had relevant for a network perspective. This is important, because in this way we will get to know the active people besides Paul and the nature of the network. Although Paul's main argument and exhortations occupy much space in his letters, there are other things of importance in the background. The letter to the Romans is a good example of this.
figure 1: Mosaic of apostle Paul at the Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna
Different functions of the letter to the Romans
Paul uses the letter to announce his own travel plans, which include coming to Rome soon. He wanted to visit the city before continuing to Spain. Nowadays it would be much easier and faster to announce a visit to friends or family. In addition, he wanted to incite the community, which consisted of different groups, not to despise or disapprove of each other. It is assumed that, on the one hand, there were people of Jewish origin and, on the other hand, people with a Greek-Roman background. Paul wants to put both on an equal footing. He accuses the Greeks and Romans that, in their religion, they first worshipped pieces of nature instead of the God who himself created nature. The Jews now weren’t any better according to Paul. He says that they might think to be better because they are a people chosen by God and by keeping to the law of Moses they do not need forgiveness of sins, but this is not the case. Paul then says that salvation for the soul is available to all people, who believe that the historical Jesus was not only a human being, but also the son of God who died to bring about the forgiveness of sins. Both groups should accept this and live in harmony. Whether this incentive has been followed up is difficult to say.
Actors and agents in the letter to the Romans
The end of the letter to the Romans is especially interesting, if you are interested in Paul's social network. He mentions a whole range of people who should receive special greetings and people, who were with Paul when he wrote the letter, who offer greetings themselves. Particularly striking are the greetings at the address of the house of Narcissus, a freedman, who can be designated as a confidant and personal secretary of emperor Claudius on the basis of some inscriptions. He also greets Priscilla and Aquila, who come from Pontus and have traveled all over the Mediterranean. They have also accompanied and assisted Paul for a long time in building up his network.
Finally, there is Phoebe from Cenchreae, a port city 8 kilometers to the east of Corinth. She is said to be a διάκονος, which translates to servant. For a long time, the question has been raised how this must be interpreted. Paul himself speaks highly about her, as she helped a lot of people and also Paul himself. Additionally, she has the autonomy to go to Rome, probably with some company. To top it off, Paul insists that the congregation assist Phoebe in all she might need. This demonstrates, together with other women, who have active roles in other Christian communities, a prominent role in general for women in early Christianity. This also says something about the activity and expansion of Christianity, which is not provided directly by Paul himself, but is active in the background. Paul may have an important leading role, but he will eventually remain one link within a network that was ever expanding.
Finally, there is Phoebe from Cenchreae, a port city 8 kilometers to the east of Corinth. She is said to be a διάκονος, which translates to servant. For a long time, the question has been raised how this must be interpreted. Paul himself speaks highly about her, as she helped a lot of people and also Paul himself. Additionally, she has the autonomy to go to Rome, probably with some company. To top it off, Paul insists that the congregation assist Phoebe in all she might need. This demonstrates, together with other women, who have active roles in other Christian communities, a prominent role in general for women in early Christianity. This also says something about the activity and expansion of Christianity, which is not provided directly by Paul himself, but is active in the background. Paul may have an important leading role, but he will eventually remain one link within a network that was ever expanding.
Networks of Corinth and Rome in the Mediterranean
map 1: network of Rome map 2: network of Corinth map 3: networks of Rome and Corinth
Christians in a non-Christian world
Then there is another element that is important in deciphering the development of the Christian networks. This is the way in which followers of the traditional religions, like pagan religion and Judaism, of the Roman Empire look towards this new religion that originated from Judaism. As with Jews, from which he himself originated, he encountered fierce opposition when he visited their synagogues in cities all over the Mediterranean. Also when dealing with non-Jews, he faced incomprehension, as many people, besides traditional religions, followed the Stoa or a form of Epicureanism, a filosophy in which a resurrection of the body had no place. It did not help that Christianity like Judaism was intolerant towards other gods. However, these are mostly the experiences Paul had, who could be quite fierce when debating his faith. In different places, Christian people had to live together with non-Christian people. Different ways of responding were possible. It is clear that Christianity continued to spread. Although, not everyone could appreciate this new strange religion. There is the Alexamenos graffiti that is found around the Palatine, which shows this.
figure 2: Alexamenos graffiti figure 3: Alexamenso graffiti accentuated 1 figure 4: Alexamenso graffiti accentuated lines 2
It can be dated between the 1st and 3rd century AD. Here Jesus is depicted on a cross with a donkey head together with another figure. The caption reads: "Alexamenos worships his God." This graffiti accurately reflects the absurdity with which some people perceived Christianity. They might have thought ¨How could it ever be possible for a God to let himself be crucified?¨ Indeed, a degradation worse than crucifixion could not be imagined, especially for a divine figure. A later and somewhat more nuanced source is the letter from Pliny, at that time a governor of Bythinia, to emperor Trajan around 112 AD, asking him how to deal with Christians. When interrogating some Christians to find out what their crime was, he only stumbled upon a series of strange and virtuous things. Things like this were adhered: “be honest, do not steal, do not kill and give what somebody is due.” These things are also regularly reflected in Paul's letters and letters written later in his name. This shows some consistency, although this didn’t mean that there was no division. The letter to the Galatians and the letters to Corinth show that Paul was dealing with resistance within these communities. However, it must be kept in mind these were incidents and not daily practise.
Characteristics of a Christian community
Finally, there were also other customs that were greater than Paul himself, which at the same time were characteristic of the Christian community. Some characteristics of the overarching Christian network can be derived from Paul’s letters. In Romans 16:16; 1 Corinthians 16:20; 2 Corinthians 12:12 and 1 Tessalonians 5:26, Paul is calling Christians to greet one another with a holy kiss. Together with him calling members brother or sister, this represents a close relationship, simmulating kinship ties, that is usually reserved for a more familial atmosphere. Additionally, Christians regularly held The Lord’s Supper to celebrate the death of Jesus. In the first letter to Corinth he deals with various issues that take place surrounding this, but celebrating supper itself is regarded as obvious for Christians.
One last striking feature of early Christian congregations is the presence of charismatic gifts, given by God, that Paul presupposes to be present. In 1 Corinthians 14: 19-25, Paul addresses the gift of speaking in foreign languages and the gift of prophecy. Thus he says that speaking of foreign languages, with explanation, is aimed at unbelievers and that prophecy is primarily intended for believers, although there are exceptions to the rule. It is remarkable that Paul himself personally is convinced that these things are characteristic of Christian communities; whether in Rome (Romans 12: 7) or in Corinth (1 Corinthians 14: 1).
One last striking feature of early Christian congregations is the presence of charismatic gifts, given by God, that Paul presupposes to be present. In 1 Corinthians 14: 19-25, Paul addresses the gift of speaking in foreign languages and the gift of prophecy. Thus he says that speaking of foreign languages, with explanation, is aimed at unbelievers and that prophecy is primarily intended for believers, although there are exceptions to the rule. It is remarkable that Paul himself personally is convinced that these things are characteristic of Christian communities; whether in Rome (Romans 12: 7) or in Corinth (1 Corinthians 14: 1).
figure 5: Last Supper by Juan de Juanes figure 6: Eucharistic stained glass window figure 7: Farewell of Saints Peter and Paul by
depicting bread and wine Alonzo Rodriguez
depicting bread and wine Alonzo Rodriguez
Concluding thoughts
Finally, it can be said that early Christianity is more dynamic than the surface suggests. Although Paul played a leading role, there was more activity initiated by other people than commonly thought. The image given by non-Christian also reflects on the nature of the Christian network; whether it's positive or not. Together from the various elements given in the letters and from interaction with non-Christians and dissenters a vivid and interconnected image can be formed of early Christianity from the 1st century AD.
By M.H.W.
Further reading
- Horrell, D.G. (2015). An Introduction to the Study of Paul. 3e editie. London: Bloomsbury.
- Meier, F. (2012). Paulus een leven tussen Jeruzalem en Rome. Amsterdam: Athenaeum-Polak & Van Gennep.
- Stowers, S.K. (1994). A Rereading of Romans. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Woolf, G. (2016). ‘Only Connect? Networks and religious change in the ancient Roman world’ Hélade 2, 43-58.
Primary literature
- Acts of the Apostles
- 1st Epistle to the Corinthians
- 2nd Epistle to the Corinthians
- Epistle to the Galatians
- Epistle to the Romans
- Pliny, Letters 10.96-97
- Inscription referring to Narcissus: CIL 3.3973; 6.9035, 15640
images
- headerimage: https://relevancy22.blogspot.nl
- figure 1: Mosaic of apostle Paul at the Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna; from http://www.bijbelin1000seconden.be/beta/tiki-index.php? page=Paulus
- figure 2: Alexamenos graffiti; from https://en.wikipedia.org
- figure 3: Alexamenos graffiti accentuated 1; from http://www.patheos.com/blogs/slacktivist
- figure 4: Alexamenos graffiti accentuated 2; from https://en.wikipedia.org
- figure 5: Last Supper by Juan de Juanes; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist
- figure 6: Eucharistic stained glass window; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist
- figure 7: Farewell of Saints Peter and Paul by Alonzo Rodriguez; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_of_peace
maps
- map 1: network of Rome, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.
- map 2: network of Corinth, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.
- map 3: networks of Rome and Corinth, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.
- Horrell, D.G. (2015). An Introduction to the Study of Paul. 3e editie. London: Bloomsbury.
- Meier, F. (2012). Paulus een leven tussen Jeruzalem en Rome. Amsterdam: Athenaeum-Polak & Van Gennep.
- Stowers, S.K. (1994). A Rereading of Romans. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Woolf, G. (2016). ‘Only Connect? Networks and religious change in the ancient Roman world’ Hélade 2, 43-58.
Primary literature
- Acts of the Apostles
- 1st Epistle to the Corinthians
- 2nd Epistle to the Corinthians
- Epistle to the Galatians
- Epistle to the Romans
- Pliny, Letters 10.96-97
- Inscription referring to Narcissus: CIL 3.3973; 6.9035, 15640
images
- headerimage: https://relevancy22.blogspot.nl
- figure 1: Mosaic of apostle Paul at the Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna; from http://www.bijbelin1000seconden.be/beta/tiki-index.php? page=Paulus
- figure 2: Alexamenos graffiti; from https://en.wikipedia.org
- figure 3: Alexamenos graffiti accentuated 1; from http://www.patheos.com/blogs/slacktivist
- figure 4: Alexamenos graffiti accentuated 2; from https://en.wikipedia.org
- figure 5: Last Supper by Juan de Juanes; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist
- figure 6: Eucharistic stained glass window; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist
- figure 7: Farewell of Saints Peter and Paul by Alonzo Rodriguez; from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_of_peace
maps
- map 1: network of Rome, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.
- map 2: network of Corinth, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.
- map 3: networks of Rome and Corinth, made with Palladio: http://hdlab.stanford.edu/palladio/.