Sicily, island in a sea of exchange
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Oh my Sicily. In memory
A desperate longing for you and For the follies of my youth returns. Again I see The lost happiness and the splendid friends, Oh Paradise from which I was expelled! What is the point of recalling your splendour? Ibn Hamdis ~1130 |
IntroductionThe Mediterranean Sea, a body of water that is both a barrier and a connector, a danger that had to be conquered and the lifeblood of the surrounding lands. For hundreds of years merchants have rowed and sailed the coastlines, transporting goods, men and ideas connecting not only the Mediterranean within itself, but also with other areas like the Indian Ocean and the North Sea area. Amidst the Mediterranean Sea lies a great island, one that has seen many different peoples living on her fertile soil. That island is Sicily and it has been a centre for the Mediterranean Sea ever since the Romans used Sicily as the granary of the Empire.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire the island of Sicily fell under control of the Ostrogoths until the year 535 when the Emperor Justinian of the Eastern Roman Empire managed to get it back under control. It stayed part of the Byzantine Empire until the Saracen invasion of 827 took over. The Saracen conquest of Sicily was completed in 878. The Christian locals now had to make a choice, convert to Islam or pay the taxes impost on them for not being Muslim. Some of them converted, for this reason, for job opportunities in the administration of Sicily, or because of genuine belief. At the same time, Muslims from the Maghreb migrated to Sicily because of the agriculture opportunities. Islamic administration came to an end in the year 1061 with the Norman invasion of Sicily. This was completed in 1091 and brought the whole of the island under Norman control. Still, Muslims and Christians shared the island and so Sicily became a sort of melting pot with Byzantine, Arabic and Latin influences. One of the best places where you can see these influences is the Palatine Chapel, build under king Roger II of Sicily in 1132. This Christian chapel was built with Byzantine mosaics and Arabic arcs and ceiling (see above for image and left for video). |
Sicily, a melting pot?
According to Alex Metcalfe, the people of Sicily lived in a polarised state after the invasion of the Normans. The Christians lived in the Northeast of the island, facing Southern Italy. The Muslims lived mostly in the Southwest, facing the Maghreb. There was some trade between Christians and Muslims but not much and they mostly stayed out of each other’s way.
According to a recent study by Dirk Booms and Peter Higgs this was not to the liking of the Norman kings of Sicily who wanted to create a melting pot, one Sicilian people. Proof of this they see in administrative documents which were not just simply translated, but originally written in Latin, Greek and Arabic. Even some religious documents received this treatment. Roger II treated Muslims with more respect than most of his contemporary Latin kings. According to the historian Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233), Roger II copied the courts of Muslim rulers, listened to their complaints, gave them justice and had them as companions. Also many buildings had different cultural influences, like the Palatine Chapel as mentioned above. According to art historian Martin Gayford the unity of the Kingdom of Sicily only existed because of its Norman kings. They held the land together but when William II, the last Norman king of Sicily, died without and heir in 1189 the island was divided and internal strife was the result. In conclusion, there were contacts between Muslims and Christians but historians have different opinions on how often and how intense the contacts were in economic, cultural or political sense. |
The travels of Ibn Jubayr
The relation between Muslims and Christians on the island changed with the Norman conquest of Sicily. The question is how and why the relationship between them changed and on what level. There were changes on commercial, political and cultural levels. To really see what has changed one has to look with the eye of a contemporary and therefore primary sources will be very important. Primary sources like the letters of Arabic travellers, visiting the city of Palermo. Ibn Jubayr was such a traveller, visiting Palermo in 1184, he gives a detailed account:
‘It is an ancient and elegant city, magnificent and gracious, and seductive to look upon. Proudly set between its open spaces and plains filled with gardens, with broad roads and avenues, it dazzles the eyes with its perfection.’ He later goes on describing how the Muslims of the city practise their religion but also describes Christian women: ‘The Christian women of this city follow the fashion of Muslim women, are fluent of speech, wrap their cloaks about them, and are veiled.’ Here we can see that cultural exchange was taking place, Christian women dress like Islamic women, even when going to church. At the same time Palermo had segregated districts in which Christians or Muslims lived. Also we can conclude that the Muslims were allowed to follow their faith and keep their mosques and also keep their own judge to whom they refer their lawsuits. |
Conclusion
With the Norman conquest of Sicily the demographic of the island changed. Some Muslims left the land, others stayed but the Christians would outnumber their Muslim neighbours. More settlers from Latin countries Latinized the island of Sicily. While in court the Christians and Muslims worked side by side the common people of Sicily were not that friendly towards each other. Christians and Muslims lived in segregated areas of the island and often didn’t share the ideals Roger II had.
Further reading
Abulafia, D, ed. The Mediterranean in history. Londen: Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2003.
Abulafia, D, ed. Italy in the central middle ages 1000 - 1300. Oxford: Oxford University, 2004.
Booms, D en P. Higgs. Sicily, culture and conquest. Londen: The British Museum Press, 2016.
Broadhurst, R, vert. The travels of Ibn Jubayr. Londen: Jonathan Cape, 1952.
Brown, G. The Norman conquest of southern Italy and Sicily. Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.
Burckhardt, S en T. Förster. Norman traditions and transcultural heritage. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing limited, 2013.
Drell, J.H. “Cultural syncretism and ethnic identity: The Norman “conquest” of Southern Italy and Sicily,” Journal of medieval history 25 (1999): 187-202.
Gayford, M. “Norman Sicily was a multicultural paradise – but it didn’t last long,” http://www.spectator.co.uk/ (April 2016). Geraadpleegd op 3 mei, 2017. http://www.spectator.co.uk/2016/04/norman-sicily-was-a-multicultural-paradise-but-it-didnt-last-long/.
Johns, J. Arabic administration in Norman Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Kapitaikin, L. “The daughter of al-Andalus: Interrelations between Norman Sicily and the muslim West,” Al-masaq 25, nr. 1 (mei 2013): 113-134.
Loud, G. The age of Robert Guiscard. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2000.
Loud, G en A, Metcalfe, eds. The society of Norman Italy. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2002.
Metcalfe, A. The muslims of medieval Italy. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
Norwich, J. The Normans in the South, 1016-1130. Londen: Longmans, 1967.
Oldfield, P. “Autonomy and Identity in the Cities of Norman Italy, c. 1050 – c. 1200.” History Compass 14, nr. 8 (augustus 2016): 370-379.
Stanton, C. “Roger de Hauteville Emir of Sicily.” Mediterranean Historical Review 25, nr. 2 (december 2010): 113-132.
Abulafia, D, ed. Italy in the central middle ages 1000 - 1300. Oxford: Oxford University, 2004.
Booms, D en P. Higgs. Sicily, culture and conquest. Londen: The British Museum Press, 2016.
Broadhurst, R, vert. The travels of Ibn Jubayr. Londen: Jonathan Cape, 1952.
Brown, G. The Norman conquest of southern Italy and Sicily. Jefferson: McFarland, 2003.
Burckhardt, S en T. Förster. Norman traditions and transcultural heritage. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing limited, 2013.
Drell, J.H. “Cultural syncretism and ethnic identity: The Norman “conquest” of Southern Italy and Sicily,” Journal of medieval history 25 (1999): 187-202.
Gayford, M. “Norman Sicily was a multicultural paradise – but it didn’t last long,” http://www.spectator.co.uk/ (April 2016). Geraadpleegd op 3 mei, 2017. http://www.spectator.co.uk/2016/04/norman-sicily-was-a-multicultural-paradise-but-it-didnt-last-long/.
Johns, J. Arabic administration in Norman Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Kapitaikin, L. “The daughter of al-Andalus: Interrelations between Norman Sicily and the muslim West,” Al-masaq 25, nr. 1 (mei 2013): 113-134.
Loud, G. The age of Robert Guiscard. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2000.
Loud, G en A, Metcalfe, eds. The society of Norman Italy. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2002.
Metcalfe, A. The muslims of medieval Italy. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
Norwich, J. The Normans in the South, 1016-1130. Londen: Longmans, 1967.
Oldfield, P. “Autonomy and Identity in the Cities of Norman Italy, c. 1050 – c. 1200.” History Compass 14, nr. 8 (augustus 2016): 370-379.
Stanton, C. “Roger de Hauteville Emir of Sicily.” Mediterranean Historical Review 25, nr. 2 (december 2010): 113-132.
Images
1. Image header: The Palatine Chapel. Image from: http://www.visitsicily.info/en/palermo-arabo-normanna-e-le-cattedrali-di-cefalu-e-monreale/ (Accessed on 25-5-2017)
2. Image 1: A Book of Psalms in Greek, Latin and Arabic. Image from: D. Booms en P. Higgs, Sicily, culture and conquest (Londen: The Britisch Museum Press, 2016), 234.
3. Image 2: Front cover of the book: The Travels of Ibn Jubayr. Image from https://kitaabun.com/shopping3/product_info.php?products_id=624 (Accessed on 28-5-2017)
2. Image 1: A Book of Psalms in Greek, Latin and Arabic. Image from: D. Booms en P. Higgs, Sicily, culture and conquest (Londen: The Britisch Museum Press, 2016), 234.
3. Image 2: Front cover of the book: The Travels of Ibn Jubayr. Image from https://kitaabun.com/shopping3/product_info.php?products_id=624 (Accessed on 28-5-2017)