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Together Alone: The Integration of Christian, Muslim and Jewish Networks in medieval Spain, 1252-1492
We often see history as beginning at some point, and then progressing towards the society we have today. We often assume that everything got better over time, but we rarely stop to think and take an in-depth look at the processes that brought us to where we are today. Our society today still has flaws, and we can look to the past to learn from our ancestors and the way they attempted to deal with the problems they were facing in their time. |
A place to start looking is medieval Spain, between the years 1252 and 1492. In this period, Spain was a unique place in the Mediterranean where Muslims, Christians and Jews lived side by side under Christian rule. In 1948 philologist Américo Castro (1885 - 1972) gave this phenomenon a name: la convivencia. According to Castro this situation lasted from the beginning of the eight century until 1492, when the Jews were banned from the Peninsula and the Muslims had to hand over their last piece of land, Granada.
The way these three networks interacted in Spain is subject of much historical debate. In short there are two main sides to the argument. Castro argued that Spain was a model of an early multicultural society. He describes extensive interaction between the groups, suggesting intensive bridging and a lack of othering. Medieval Spain could, if one accepts Castro’s reasoning, be regarded as one big network, as opposed to a collection of three coexisting networks. More recent studies into this supposed convivencia have given us a more nuanced vision. An example of this is a study conducted by Chris Lowney. He claims that there was indeed a form of coexistence between the three networks, but that it only existed as a result of economic incentive. Lowney sees medieval Spain more so as a collection of three networks, forced into sporadic bonding as a result of economic incentive, as opposed to sincere tolerance. It seems only logical to then question if Castro’s idea of the convivencia was too optimistic. Lowney’s idea, together with other similar opinions on the matter, inadvertently lead to the question ‘why was there no further integration between Christians, Muslims and Jews?’. To answer this question, we must first look at the developments in medieval Spain that brought these three faiths together.
The way these three networks interacted in Spain is subject of much historical debate. In short there are two main sides to the argument. Castro argued that Spain was a model of an early multicultural society. He describes extensive interaction between the groups, suggesting intensive bridging and a lack of othering. Medieval Spain could, if one accepts Castro’s reasoning, be regarded as one big network, as opposed to a collection of three coexisting networks. More recent studies into this supposed convivencia have given us a more nuanced vision. An example of this is a study conducted by Chris Lowney. He claims that there was indeed a form of coexistence between the three networks, but that it only existed as a result of economic incentive. Lowney sees medieval Spain more so as a collection of three networks, forced into sporadic bonding as a result of economic incentive, as opposed to sincere tolerance. It seems only logical to then question if Castro’s idea of the convivencia was too optimistic. Lowney’s idea, together with other similar opinions on the matter, inadvertently lead to the question ‘why was there no further integration between Christians, Muslims and Jews?’. To answer this question, we must first look at the developments in medieval Spain that brought these three faiths together.
Convivencia and the Reconquista
Spain’s geological position made it easy for the Moors of Africa to make their way into the European part of the Mediterranean. Until the early eight century, the Muslims ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus. However from the eight century onward the Christians started to reconquer the Spanish lands, which was easy due to the geological position close to France. This reconquering happened in a slow but sure matter and was called the Reconquista. After the start of this Reconquista several Christian kingdoms started to form like (a.o.) Aragon, Castile and Léon. By the year 1252 the Christians had fought their way through the majority of Spain and only Granada was left under Islamic rule. All the while, Jews lived scattered around the Peninsula. The coming of the Reconquista therefore made Spain a unique region in the Mediterranean, bringing the three Abrahamic faiths together under one roof. This was nowhere to be seen in the rest of the Mediterranean, making medieval Spain a laboratory for multiculturalism.
Spain’s geological position made it easy for the Moors of Africa to make their way into the European part of the Mediterranean. Until the early eight century, the Muslims ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus. However from the eight century onward the Christians started to reconquer the Spanish lands, which was easy due to the geological position close to France. This reconquering happened in a slow but sure matter and was called the Reconquista. After the start of this Reconquista several Christian kingdoms started to form like (a.o.) Aragon, Castile and Léon. By the year 1252 the Christians had fought their way through the majority of Spain and only Granada was left under Islamic rule. All the while, Jews lived scattered around the Peninsula. The coming of the Reconquista therefore made Spain a unique region in the Mediterranean, bringing the three Abrahamic faiths together under one roof. This was nowhere to be seen in the rest of the Mediterranean, making medieval Spain a laboratory for multiculturalism.
The Siete Partidas of Alfonso X of Castile
Having now established the reasons for the coming together of the three faiths, we can move on to addressing what we started out with, namely looking into the convivencia and why the Christian, Jewish and Islamic networks of medieval Spain did not manage to further integrate into one big Iberian network. To give an idea of the way the three religions interacted we take a look at the early fourteenth century seventh partida of the Siete Partidas of Christian king Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284), a law code used in Castile to make the boundaries between the Christian, Muslim and Jewish societies very clear.
An example can be seen in the law titled No Christian, Man Nor Woman, Shall Live With A Jew. Not only does is it forbidden to live with them, they are also not allowed to invite each other over for dinner or drinks. They can also not accept invitations from each other. Another law is titled Concerning The Moors and states that moors were not allowed to have mosques in Christian towns. If they would have a mosque, it would from then on belong to the king and he can give it to whomever he wishes. There are also laws concerning the consequences of converting to either the Jewish or the Muslim faith, which, in case of the Christian converting to Judaism, will result in death.
Having now established the reasons for the coming together of the three faiths, we can move on to addressing what we started out with, namely looking into the convivencia and why the Christian, Jewish and Islamic networks of medieval Spain did not manage to further integrate into one big Iberian network. To give an idea of the way the three religions interacted we take a look at the early fourteenth century seventh partida of the Siete Partidas of Christian king Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284), a law code used in Castile to make the boundaries between the Christian, Muslim and Jewish societies very clear.
An example can be seen in the law titled No Christian, Man Nor Woman, Shall Live With A Jew. Not only does is it forbidden to live with them, they are also not allowed to invite each other over for dinner or drinks. They can also not accept invitations from each other. Another law is titled Concerning The Moors and states that moors were not allowed to have mosques in Christian towns. If they would have a mosque, it would from then on belong to the king and he can give it to whomever he wishes. There are also laws concerning the consequences of converting to either the Jewish or the Muslim faith, which, in case of the Christian converting to Judaism, will result in death.
Network Analysis of the Iberian Peninsula
As earlier argued, Spain was a collection of three networks, forced into sporadic bonding as a result of economic incentive as opposed to sincere tolerance. But how could it be that three cultures living in such close proximity to each other, having to deal with each other on a daily basis, did not integrate into one big network? Here is where the famous network theory of political scientist Robert D. Putnam is brought into play. In his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community Putnam explains that, to have a more egalitarian society, bonding (strengthening of ties within a network) as well as bridging (making ties between networks) is required. When applying this to the medieval Iberian peninsula, it is not the concept of bonding, but of bridging which is interesting to look at. Why? Because it is in fact the concept that is missing from the picture, the puzzle piece that would have actually made the convivencia work. When looking at the primary sources touched upon earlier, we see that bridging between the three networks did not take place. Moreover, bridging was discouraged by making laws that made it impossible to do so, like the law that stated that Christians and Jews could not drink or dine together. There were punishments for converting to another faith unless it was the Christian one. But even if a Jew or Muslim would convert to Christianity, they would no longer be accepted by their old faith. Although the source does not state so, other sources tell us that new Christians often got different names like conversos or moriscos, so they never fully belonged to either side.
As earlier argued, Spain was a collection of three networks, forced into sporadic bonding as a result of economic incentive as opposed to sincere tolerance. But how could it be that three cultures living in such close proximity to each other, having to deal with each other on a daily basis, did not integrate into one big network? Here is where the famous network theory of political scientist Robert D. Putnam is brought into play. In his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community Putnam explains that, to have a more egalitarian society, bonding (strengthening of ties within a network) as well as bridging (making ties between networks) is required. When applying this to the medieval Iberian peninsula, it is not the concept of bonding, but of bridging which is interesting to look at. Why? Because it is in fact the concept that is missing from the picture, the puzzle piece that would have actually made the convivencia work. When looking at the primary sources touched upon earlier, we see that bridging between the three networks did not take place. Moreover, bridging was discouraged by making laws that made it impossible to do so, like the law that stated that Christians and Jews could not drink or dine together. There were punishments for converting to another faith unless it was the Christian one. But even if a Jew or Muslim would convert to Christianity, they would no longer be accepted by their old faith. Although the source does not state so, other sources tell us that new Christians often got different names like conversos or moriscos, so they never fully belonged to either side.
Conclusion
Even though Castro’s idea of convivencia is a utopian idea we should all aspire, it does not make sense to apply it to a society which, through the primary sources, seems so heavily segregated. The economic incentive was most likely the only form of bridging that took place and was probably also the reason that the networks could coexist for such a long period. To call this society harmonious, is too optimistic, as the laws clearly emphasize.
Even though Castro’s idea of convivencia is a utopian idea we should all aspire, it does not make sense to apply it to a society which, through the primary sources, seems so heavily segregated. The economic incentive was most likely the only form of bridging that took place and was probably also the reason that the networks could coexist for such a long period. To call this society harmonious, is too optimistic, as the laws clearly emphasize.
J.P.
Further readings
Castro, Adolfo de. The history of the Jews in Spain : from the time of their settlement in that country till the commencement of the present century.
Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1972.
Constable, Olivia Remie. Housing The Stranger In The Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, And Travel In Late Antiquity And The Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
-------. Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997.
Eckstein, Nicholas and Nicholas Terpstra. Sociability and its Discontents: Civil Society, Social Capital, and their Alternatives in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2010.
Ingram, Kevin. The Conversos and Moriscos in Late Medieval Spain and Beyond. Leiden: Brill NV, 2009.
Lourie, Elena, and Harvey J. Hames. Jews, Muslims, and Christians in and Around the Crown of Aragon: Essays in Honour of Professor Elena Lourie. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
Lowney, Chris. A vanished world : Muslims, Christians, and Jews in medieval Spain. New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.
Nirenberg, David. Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Novikoff, Alex. “Between Tolerance and Intolerance in Medieval Spain: An Historiographic Enigma.” Medieval Encounters 11, 1/2 (2005): 7-36.
Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Touchstone, 2000.
Ray, Jonathan. “Beyond Tolerance and Persecution: Our Approach to Medieval Convivencia.” Jewish Social Studies 11, 2 (winter, 2005): 1–18.
---------. The Sephardic Frontier: The "Reconquista" and the Jewish Community in Medieval Iberia. Cornell University Press, 2006.
Wolf, Kenneth Baxter. “Convivencia in Medieval Spain: A Brief History of an Idea.” Religion Compass 3, 1 (januari 2009): 72-85.
Castro, Adolfo de. The history of the Jews in Spain : from the time of their settlement in that country till the commencement of the present century.
Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1972.
Constable, Olivia Remie. Housing The Stranger In The Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, And Travel In Late Antiquity And The Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
-------. Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997.
Eckstein, Nicholas and Nicholas Terpstra. Sociability and its Discontents: Civil Society, Social Capital, and their Alternatives in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2010.
Ingram, Kevin. The Conversos and Moriscos in Late Medieval Spain and Beyond. Leiden: Brill NV, 2009.
Lourie, Elena, and Harvey J. Hames. Jews, Muslims, and Christians in and Around the Crown of Aragon: Essays in Honour of Professor Elena Lourie. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
Lowney, Chris. A vanished world : Muslims, Christians, and Jews in medieval Spain. New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.
Nirenberg, David. Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Novikoff, Alex. “Between Tolerance and Intolerance in Medieval Spain: An Historiographic Enigma.” Medieval Encounters 11, 1/2 (2005): 7-36.
Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Touchstone, 2000.
Ray, Jonathan. “Beyond Tolerance and Persecution: Our Approach to Medieval Convivencia.” Jewish Social Studies 11, 2 (winter, 2005): 1–18.
---------. The Sephardic Frontier: The "Reconquista" and the Jewish Community in Medieval Iberia. Cornell University Press, 2006.
Wolf, Kenneth Baxter. “Convivencia in Medieval Spain: A Brief History of an Idea.” Religion Compass 3, 1 (januari 2009): 72-85.