Hernán Cortés: A Quest for Glory
How could someone with no experience as a military leader and with an army consisting of untrained and ill-equipped soldiers overthrow the biggest and most powerful civilization of the Americas? How did his successful conquest transform the history of both the European as the newfound American continent? This is a history about the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés (1485-1547) and how he used his extensive social network to achieve, retain and legitimate his power over New Spain.
Figure 1: Hernán Cortés meets Montezuma II, the ruler of the Aztec Empire
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The conquest of Mexico
Very little is known about the early life of Cortés. He was born in a relatively wealthy family in Medellín (Spain) and allegedly studied Law and Latin for a few years. After Columbus voyage to the New World, his interest for it grew quickly. In 1504 he sailed off to become a citizen of Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Years later, in 1511, he accompanied Diego Velázquez in the conquest of Cuba. Velázquez would become governor of the newfound capital Santiago and Cortés became a clerk and later mayor of the city. This is where the raise of power and influence of Cortés began.
Velázquez appointed Cortés as captain general of a new expedition to the Valley of Mexico. Cortés, who had heard about a mighty civilization that lived there for centuries, did not hesitate and gathered a crew and ships in a quick period of time, which suggest his excellent leading skills. By the time Velázquez changed his mind and revoked his appointment, Cortés was long gone and had set sail towards the coasts of Mexico with 11 ships, roughly 500 soldiers and 16 horses.
He stayed at the coast for a while to gain intelligence about the native ‘Indian’ people. He learned about the customs, traditions and religions of these people and -more importantly- their political structure. Using his force for most and his diplomatic skills for others, he gained a big group of allied Mexica tribes who were unhappy with the ‘central’ government of ruler Montezuma II in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán. He used the division among the tribes to his advantage and conquered the cities of Tlaxcala and Cholula. He received several threats by Montezuma, who warned him to not come any further, but these were ignored by Cortés. Eventually, as he marched towards Tenochtitlán, he and his men were received with much honor by Montezuma- as was Aztec religious custom.
The Aztecs were unprepared for the amount of force Cortés brought with him and within a few months of arrival he took their king Montezuma hostage while his men sacked the city. Soon thereafter, Cortés faced a unwelcome surprise: Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba whom Cortés disobeyed, landed with his troops in Mexico to claim the city and the lands. Cortés marched out with his men and defeated Velázquez. On his return in 1521 to the capital he faced a rebellion by the Aztecs. He fled from the city and regrouped, only to come back with much greater force. A struck of faith helped him: the Europeans brought the smallpox epidemic in the city, which killed a big part of the population and made it an easy prey for Cortés. He claimed the city and the entire of Mexico and called it New Spain with the capital of Mexico City. It quickly became an important Spanish colony and lots of Europeans moved here. Hernán Cortés was named governor by Charles V and he left a legacy in Europe as the most successful conquistador of all…..
Very little is known about the early life of Cortés. He was born in a relatively wealthy family in Medellín (Spain) and allegedly studied Law and Latin for a few years. After Columbus voyage to the New World, his interest for it grew quickly. In 1504 he sailed off to become a citizen of Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Years later, in 1511, he accompanied Diego Velázquez in the conquest of Cuba. Velázquez would become governor of the newfound capital Santiago and Cortés became a clerk and later mayor of the city. This is where the raise of power and influence of Cortés began.
Velázquez appointed Cortés as captain general of a new expedition to the Valley of Mexico. Cortés, who had heard about a mighty civilization that lived there for centuries, did not hesitate and gathered a crew and ships in a quick period of time, which suggest his excellent leading skills. By the time Velázquez changed his mind and revoked his appointment, Cortés was long gone and had set sail towards the coasts of Mexico with 11 ships, roughly 500 soldiers and 16 horses.
He stayed at the coast for a while to gain intelligence about the native ‘Indian’ people. He learned about the customs, traditions and religions of these people and -more importantly- their political structure. Using his force for most and his diplomatic skills for others, he gained a big group of allied Mexica tribes who were unhappy with the ‘central’ government of ruler Montezuma II in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán. He used the division among the tribes to his advantage and conquered the cities of Tlaxcala and Cholula. He received several threats by Montezuma, who warned him to not come any further, but these were ignored by Cortés. Eventually, as he marched towards Tenochtitlán, he and his men were received with much honor by Montezuma- as was Aztec religious custom.
The Aztecs were unprepared for the amount of force Cortés brought with him and within a few months of arrival he took their king Montezuma hostage while his men sacked the city. Soon thereafter, Cortés faced a unwelcome surprise: Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba whom Cortés disobeyed, landed with his troops in Mexico to claim the city and the lands. Cortés marched out with his men and defeated Velázquez. On his return in 1521 to the capital he faced a rebellion by the Aztecs. He fled from the city and regrouped, only to come back with much greater force. A struck of faith helped him: the Europeans brought the smallpox epidemic in the city, which killed a big part of the population and made it an easy prey for Cortés. He claimed the city and the entire of Mexico and called it New Spain with the capital of Mexico City. It quickly became an important Spanish colony and lots of Europeans moved here. Hernán Cortés was named governor by Charles V and he left a legacy in Europe as the most successful conquistador of all…..
Figure 2: Hernán Cortés
His letters to Charles V, ruler of the Spanish and Holy Roman Empire
Most of what we know about Hernán Cortés himself (and in a broader sense the conquistadors), the Aztec empire and his conquest of it, are from five letters of relation that he wrote to the king of Spain and Holy Roman emperor: Charles V. Only four letters are preserved to this day. These letters are addressed directly to his king (note: not to Velázquez!) and are to this day used as a source of information for especially the Aztec empire. The letters are an extensive narrative of his conquest of Mexico and are at first glance meant to inform Charles V about this exotic far-away land and its ‘mighty powerful’ Aztec empire. He writes about his conquests and his encounters with the natives who, according to him, were very rich ‘barbarians’ organized in a powerful state.
Most of what we know about Hernán Cortés himself (and in a broader sense the conquistadors), the Aztec empire and his conquest of it, are from five letters of relation that he wrote to the king of Spain and Holy Roman emperor: Charles V. Only four letters are preserved to this day. These letters are addressed directly to his king (note: not to Velázquez!) and are to this day used as a source of information for especially the Aztec empire. The letters are an extensive narrative of his conquest of Mexico and are at first glance meant to inform Charles V about this exotic far-away land and its ‘mighty powerful’ Aztec empire. He writes about his conquests and his encounters with the natives who, according to him, were very rich ‘barbarians’ organized in a powerful state.
(Critical) reception
The letters were published almost directly after the events (~1521) and were the ultimate legacy for Cortés. In this story he is a hero, a proud conquistador, a fearless, merciful Christian knight, et cetera. This is exactly how he would be remembered in Europe for many centuries. His conquest was the most successful of all: the ultimate proof of European hegemony over the world during this time. Because the Aztecs did not leave any written sources, his narrative would become the most important and ‘truthful’ source about them in European discourse for the centuries to come.
Not until relatively recently, his letters were used as a valuable historical source. This would change around the 1970s with the emergence of post-colonial perspectives on him and his conquest. Historians like Inga Clendinnen argue that his letters should be seen as an historical artifact rather than a valuable source, because it is loaded with the European superiority complex of that time and is written to make the Aztecs look bad and the Spanish conquistadors (more specifically: him) look good. Anthony Pagden, the editor of the latest collection of Cortés’ letters, also makes very interesting remarks. According to him, Cortés did not necessarily mean to inform Charles (or the people of Europe) with accurate descriptions of both the Aztecs as his conquest. He states that the most important underlying reasons for him to write these letters was to justify his actions, prove his loyalty to the Spanish Crown and as means to legitimate his power over New Spain. In other words, by addressing his letters directly to the king he makes it look like he is working directly under royal command and not under order of Velázquez.
The letters were published almost directly after the events (~1521) and were the ultimate legacy for Cortés. In this story he is a hero, a proud conquistador, a fearless, merciful Christian knight, et cetera. This is exactly how he would be remembered in Europe for many centuries. His conquest was the most successful of all: the ultimate proof of European hegemony over the world during this time. Because the Aztecs did not leave any written sources, his narrative would become the most important and ‘truthful’ source about them in European discourse for the centuries to come.
Not until relatively recently, his letters were used as a valuable historical source. This would change around the 1970s with the emergence of post-colonial perspectives on him and his conquest. Historians like Inga Clendinnen argue that his letters should be seen as an historical artifact rather than a valuable source, because it is loaded with the European superiority complex of that time and is written to make the Aztecs look bad and the Spanish conquistadors (more specifically: him) look good. Anthony Pagden, the editor of the latest collection of Cortés’ letters, also makes very interesting remarks. According to him, Cortés did not necessarily mean to inform Charles (or the people of Europe) with accurate descriptions of both the Aztecs as his conquest. He states that the most important underlying reasons for him to write these letters was to justify his actions, prove his loyalty to the Spanish Crown and as means to legitimate his power over New Spain. In other words, by addressing his letters directly to the king he makes it look like he is working directly under royal command and not under order of Velázquez.
Social networking
With the notion of Pagden in the back of your mind, the letters of Cortés make an even more interesting read. By focusing on his intentions of justification, legitimation of power and search for eternal glory, it opens up new possibilities and raises new questions. A question that popped into my head was: how did Cortés use his ‘social network’ and relations to achieve his quest for power and glory? If we are focusing on his relations relevant to this particular case study and letters, you can make roughly two groups of networks that he kept: his relations with the native Indians and his relations with the homeland and people of Spain. In this web of two separate networks, Cortés is the one that connects these two and uses his connections of both worlds to his advantage.
As said before, Cortés kept a lot of relations with the native people of Mexico. Not only political strategic relations like a group of natives called Tlaxcalans who would become important allies against the Aztecs, but also relations on a more personal level like a native translator who would become his wife. However the most important connection Cortés had was with Montezuma II, the ruler of the Aztecs. He used his connection to Charles V to claim the lands of Montezuma and to be the rightful leader of his lands. To create his public image and ultimate legacy, Cortés used a new invention: the printing press. Because of the distribution of this letters he reached many Spanish people and he knew that this was important to keep his power and create a public image of himself as a true historical hero. Cortés used his social network to his advantage: if he writes that he is claiming the land in name of Charles V, how could he NOT be the rightful ruler of New Spain?
B.S.
Further reading
Cortés, Hernan.,. Pagden, Anthony., Eliott, J.H. Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001
Clendinnen, Inga. ""Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty": Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico." Representations, no. 33 (1991): 65-100
Todorov, Cvetan. The conquest of America : the question of the other. New York: Harper & Row, 1984
Cortés, Hernan.,. Pagden, Anthony., Eliott, J.H. Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001
Clendinnen, Inga. ""Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty": Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico." Representations, no. 33 (1991): 65-100
Todorov, Cvetan. The conquest of America : the question of the other. New York: Harper & Row, 1984